What is a Hypernova?

In order to describe the Big Bang Hypernova Hypothesis we need to understand the dynamic patterns that constitutes a hypernova inside our observable universe. It is only after we have discussed and identified the key elements of a hypernova are we able to infer behaviour to the larger scale such that we can describe the Big Bang event and the birth of our universe. Thus we are able to develop the Big Bang Hypernova Hypothesis.

So what is a hypernova?

In short, a hypernova is a particular type of supernova wherein a star explodes at the end of its life.

Beginning in the late 1960s mysterious gamma-ray bursts were detected coming from the edges of our observable universe. Astrophysicists from Caltech hypothesised that an extreme form of supernova could theoretically produce the observed gamma-ray bursts; coining the term hypernova. A hypernova like a shaped charged explosion focuses its output energy into a pair of tight high energy jets.

So in order to describe what a hypernova is we need to first understand the life cycle of a star such that we can know about its death in a supernova explosion.

Every star, at its core, is a massive fusion reactor. Nuclear fusion is the reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei are combined to form heavier atomic nuclei. It is the alchemical engine by which all the different elements heavier than hydrogen in nature are created.

As Einstein, very famously showed in his theory of special relativity, energy and mass are one and the same thing via his most famous equation:

$$ E=mc^2 \phantom{xxxxxxxxx} (1) $$

The difference in mass between reactants and products, of a given nuclear fusion reaction, manifests itself in either the release or absorption of energy.

As an example, let us consider the fusion of deuterium with tritium; both isotopes of hydrogen. Deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen, has an atomic nucleus made up of a single neutron and a single proton. Tritium, another isotope of hydrogen, has a nucleus consisting of two neutrons and a single proton. Both nucleuses have a single proton which makes them both isotopes of the element hydrogen.

The fusion of deuterium and tritium atoms forms an atom of helium-4, whose nucleus has two neutrons and two protons, along with a single free neutron. The difference in mass between both the input deuterium and tritium and the resultant output atom of helium-4 along with the free neutron is converted into 17.59MeV of kinetic energy.

Nuclear fusion is a very difficult reaction to create and maintain. The reason for this comes from the electrostatic forces of the positively charged protons in the nucleus. Protons bound inside the nucleus of an atom are positively charged. Because like charges repel one another, coming from the electrostatic force, then atomic nuclei repel one another. Thus it takes titanic temperatures and pressures to force these atoms together such that they under go nuclear fusion.

A star is born from interstellar clouds of hydrogen gas that slowly coalesce, under the force of gravity, into forming larger and larger masses. As we know, the more mass an object has the greater its gravitational pull. So as the density of gas increases, in a given area, the greater its gravitational pull becomes. This increased gravitational pull thus attracts even more interstellar gas towards it. Overtime the concentration and density of the ball of gas becomes greater and greater as it continues to grow.

As the ball of gas grows the temperature and pressure at its core continually increases coming from the gravitational pull down towards the core. If the ball of gas gains enough mass then the gravitational pressure at the core becomes sufficient enough such that atoms are forced together eventually triggering a nuclear fusion reaction. As a nuclear fusion reaction begins it releases energy, heating up and irradiating the ball of gas, at which point a star is born. The resultant light energy emitted from this first nuclear fusion reaction is the first light of the newborn star.

The lifetime of stars can be viewed as being a tug-of-war struggle between two opposing forces. The first force is that of gravity, caused by the mass and density of the star, which is pointed in towards the core. The second force is that coming from the nuclear reaction within the core and is pointed outwards from the core; in complete opposition to the crushing gravitational force. The given shape, type and size of a star is defined by the equilibrium of force between the inward force of gravity and the outward force created by the release of energy coming from nuclear fusion at the core.

So long as the nuclear fusion process is releasing energy then it generates a counter force to the gravitational collapse of the star in on itself.

Hydrogen contains only one proton which fuses to form helium with two protons. Helium, with two protons, fuses together into becoming beryllium which has four protons. The electrostatic repulsive force between hydrogen, with a single proton, is much less than the electrostatic repulsive force between helium atoms because it has two protons. Thus the temperatures and pressures required to fuse heavier and heavier elements together becomes greater the further we travel up the periodic table.

That is, the fusion of helium into beryllium requires greater temperatures and pressures at the core than it does for hydrogen fusion. The fusion of helium and beryllium into carbon requires even greater temperatures and pressures at the core than it does for helium fusion. Thus wither a given star can actually fuse helium into beryllium is ultimately dependant upon its size and mass. Given that the fusion of helium can happen, then for wither a given star can actually subsequently fuse helium and beryllium into carbon is dependant upon the star being even more massive.

It is for the aforementioned reasons that stars come in a diverse set of colours and sizes that gives rise to stellar classification. Also it determines the final fate of the star. Specifically, wither or not it goes supernova coming from what is called core collapse.

As the star lives its life it burns through its fuel supply. For the vast majority of its life the fusion of hydrogen into helium is the dominant fuel source. But eventually the star’s supply of hydrogen will run out as it is fused into helium. Helium, being a denser atom than hydrogen, will have a greater gravitational attractive pull towards the core than hydrogen. Thus the core over time comes to be composed primarily of helium.

Now, dependent upon wither a given star has sufficient size, mass and density will thus determine if helium fusion can actually take place. Remembering that the temperatures and pressures required for helium fusion to occur is greater than that required for hydrogen fusion.

As hydrogen fusion is replaced with the fusion of helium there is a change in the equilibrium between the inward force of gravity, coming form the star’s mass, and the outward fusion force at the core. This change in the equilibrium causes the star to change its size, shape and colour which is dependent on the type of star it is. For instance, in the case of our own sun it will swell up into becoming a red supergiant whose volume will extend to the orbit of Earth swallowing our world in fire; but not for around 5 billion years from now.

For the purpose of this discussion we are going to restrict ourselves to looking at massive supergiants. More specifically, we restrict our discussion to Wolf-Rayet stars or systems like Eta Carinae. Namely, we are considering stars whose final fate is a hypernova event which acts to produce a pair of gamma-ray bursts. That is, the mass and size of the star is sufficient that the fusion of heavier and heavier elements can happen.

When a star depletes its hydrogen fuel supply the outward nuclear force from its fusion drops. The crushing inward gravitational force dominates forcing the atoms at the core closer together. Thus the pressure and temperature at the core rises. Eventually the pressure and temperature at the core forces the atoms of helium to fuse. In turn the fusion of helium releases energy and the star regains a new outward nuclear force.

In effect the outward nuclear fusion force of the star is swapped from hydrogen to helium fusion. This binary change dramatically upsets the equilibrium with the inward gravitational force changing the star’s characteristics such its shape, size and colour. For example, swelling into a large red super giant like Betelgeuse.

Our star now has helium as the primary fuel source. Here two helium atoms fuse together to form an atom of beryllium. In turn an atom of beryllium fuses with an atom of helium to form a carbon atom. Thus carbon now comes to replace helium in the core. This specific fusion process is called the triple-alpha process.

The process of one fuel source being replaced by another is cyclic so long as the fusion reaction releases energy to generate an outward force. Hydrogen runs out so helium dominates. Helium runs out so beryllium dominates. Beryllium runs out so carbon dominates. With each change the temperature and pressures at the core rises. With each change a redistribution of inward and outward forces occurs such that a new equilibrium between gravity and fusion emerges.

The fusion of heavier and heavier elements continues such that carbon fuses into oxygen; oxygen fuses becoming neon; neon fuses becoming magnesium; magnesium fuses becoming silicon; and finally silicon fuses into iron. At each stage the newly formed heavier element sinks down towards the core such that the presence of the new element comes to make up the majority of the core. In this way we get the onion representation of a star primed to go nova[1]. However the new heavier elements at the core, such as magnesium or silicon, are not subjected to sufficient pressures and temperatures such that they can fuse into even heavier elements. This only happens when the lighter fuel source has been depleted.

With each change in the primary fuel source the equilibrium between the inward gravitational force and outward fusion force changes. So as the fusion of the lighter element is depleted the energy generated in creating the outward fusion force suddenly drops. Because of the mass of the star the gravitational inward force causes the star to collapse down on itself. The downward pressure, coming from the force of gravity, becomes so great at the core that conditions are met such that the fusion of the new heavier element begins.

The length of time a star burns through each of the heavier fuel sources is greatly decreased with each iteration. A carbon core is burned through in 600 years. The neon fuel source is gone within a single year; oxygen lasts 6 months; and finally silicon fusion only lasts a single day. But it is the fusion of iron that is the trigger mechanism for a supernova.

So what is it about the fusion of iron that makes it so different such that it triggers a supernova?

The fusion of iron actually consumes energy. In inverse, the fusion of all elements lighter than iron always releases energy. So as iron fusion actually consumes energy it means that the outward force from the core is suddenly gone.

Up until this moment the star has always produced an outward force that opposes the inward gravitational force. This outward force exists because the fusion of elements lighter than iron has always released energy. But with the fusion of iron this outward force turns in on itself such that it consumes energy. With nothing to oppose the inward gravitational force, coming from the mass of the star, the cataclysmic event we call a supernova begins.

It is at this point I need clarify the term hypernova, as it was originally coined in the 1980s[2]. Originally the term hypernova was coined in order to postulate the existence of a theoretical type of hyper-star whose death, by core collapse, could account for the observation of long duration gamma-ray bursts. A super-supernova as it were.

The term has fallen out of use as new observations and exact classifications have led to more accurate descriptions. So a hypernova is a Type-II supernova whose core-collapse is so complete that a black hole is born. In turn the energy output from the hypernova is focused into a pair of astrophysical jets that we observe as a gamma-ray burst.

A hypernova, as described here, is extreme but not the most extreme. At the furtherest known extremes are pair-instability supernovae. Here the core collapses so violently that pair production dominates driven by the gamma-rays produced by the collapsing core. Pair production produces equal amounts of electron and positron pairs which in turn annihilate themselves turning back into gamma-rays. The net effect being that the entire mass of the collapsing core is turned into gamma-ray energy leaving no crushed stellar remanent such as a black hole.

However in describing my hypothesis I have decided to keep the term hypernova because of the specific pattern associated with this kind of supernova as it was originally postulated. Namely, the production of a pair of gamma-ray bursts along with the birth of a black hole. In the context of the Big Bang Hypernova Hypothesis it is making specific reference to this pattern of behaviour in order to infer such behaviour at a much larger scale.

Secondly, my hypothesis specifically postulates the existence of a starlike object in the SuperVerse measuring hundreds of millions of light years across that I have called a MacLean. This is in reflection to the postulation of hyper-stars existing in the early universe. But unlike the theoretical hyper-stars in the early universe, which have never been seen yet, I do provide reasoned argument that a MacLean is the cause of the Bootes supervoid. Namely, the Big Bang Hypernova Hypothesis does provide evidence for its primordial atom.

Everything else related to the Big Bang theory itself has always talked about hypotheticals and theoretical descriptions for which we have no evidence. For instance, no direct evidence for the existence of the inflation field responsible for cosmic inflation has ever been found. Off course, cosmic inflation to me is a very clever mathematical trick used in the context of the classical Big Bang theory, dating back to George Lemaître, in order to stop the idea collapsing in on itself.

Without cosmic inflation the classical Big Bang model, specifically the Lambda-CDM model built on the laws of quantum mechanics, has the universe coming from an infinitely dense point that would have collapsed back in itself. To quote Roger Penrose, in discussion about the fine-tuning of constants, the creation of our universe coming from an infinitely dense point would have had to have been so precise that the probability of such an event leading to the universe we see today is:

$$ 1 : 10,000,000,000^{237} $$

That is the probability without the fix that is cosmic inflation.

As the Big Bang Hypernova Hypothesis does not originate from a single infinitely dense point then it renders the ideas of cosmic inflation redundant. This is probably going to be a massive problem for me in getting acceptance of my ideas by mainstream cosmology.

There are two major problems with mainstream cosmology. One is cosmic inflation and the vast establishment of current cosmologists who have dedicated their lives to proving cosmic inflation. The second is the vast majority of frameworks, such as the FLWR-metric, are based on the assumption that the cosmological principle of the universe is that it is both isotropic and homogenous at sufficiently large scales. We are onto fractal geometry which was discovered after the lives of Cantor and Hilbert and we need a new framework. What that is exactly is the entire purpose of this work going forward. As for trying to explain the exact mechanism of the classical Big Bang theory to any lay person always leave them looking utterly perplexed; as they are not in the mood to swallow any bull crap.

Off course I am reminded about the quote from Hitch-Hikers Guide to the Galaxy on the invention of the Heart of Gold Improbability Drive: “He did this and managed to create the long sought after golden Infinite Improbability generator out of thin air. Unfortunately, after he was awarded the Galactic Institute's Prize for Extreme Cleverness he was lynched by a rampaging mob of respectable physicists who couldn't stand him being ‘a smart arse’.”

But at the same time I need to remind myself not to become blind to the fact that being the progenitor of this idea it is my role to convince you the reader of its validity by discourse of the scientific method. I am blinded by virtue of ego inflation; vision so strong that I see naught else. For in applying the scientific methodology to this idea I have developed arguments that gives me very solid foundations in general relativity (which we explore later in this essay), quantum mechanics as well as accounting for various features in the Cosmic Microwave Sky. But it’s the inspirational artwork that I accidentally stubbled upon that makes me a true believer.

Trouble is that this snapshot of everything that I wish to communicate exists in my mind’s eye. The numerous arguments I still have yet to vernacularise all the while following the one golden rule “That self-similar patterns repeat themselves irrespective of scale”. The dictation given that fractal geometry is in fact the cosmological principle.

So in order to properly understand the Big Bang Hypernova Hypothesis we need to complete our discussion of a hypernova. For it is in the specific patterns of behaviour that we infer to the larger scale in order to tell a far more believable story of creation which begins with a MacLean. In our universe, at the scale of a star, this pattern begins with the stellar core-collapse of the star.

Trouble is that this snapshot of everything that I wish to communicate exists in my mind’s eye. The numerous arguments I still have yet to vernacularise all the while following the one golden rule “That self-similar patterns repeat themselves irrespective of scale”. The dictation given that fractal geometry is in fact the cosmological principle.

So in order to properly understand the Big Bang Hypernova Hypothesis we need to complete our discussion of a hypernova. For it is in the specific patterns of behaviour that we infer to the larger scale in order to tell a far more believable story of creation which begins with a MacLean. In our universe, at the scale of a star, this pattern begins with the stellar core-collapse of the star.

As silicon fusion ends the inward gravitational collapse begins by the exertion of even more pressure on the dense iron core coming from the mass of the star. This increase in pressure thus triggers the fusion of iron. But unlike the previous cycles of fusion the fusion of iron and all other heavier elements consumes energy as opposed to releasing it.

This consumption in energy by the fusion of iron, and all heavier elements, is lost in the production of neutrinos. Neutrinos which interact with ordinary matter very weakly rapidly escape the core. It is this flash in the sudden production of neutrinos that to an outside observer tells them that the star is about to go nova.

The nucleosynthesis of all elements heavier than iron occurs in the moments proceeding core collapse. The field of study being the subject of supernova nucleosynthesis. The fusion of these heavier elements is driven by neutron capture. Here the nucleus captures or fuses with an electrically neutral neutron. [1]

As iron fusion consumes energy then any outward force, aside from neutrino production, suddenly disappears. Because of the colossal mass of the dying star the inward force of gravity towards the core has nothing to counteract it. The regions around the core are suddenly unsupported and plunge in towards the gravitational centre at speeds of up to 15% the speed of light.

The object resulting from core collapse is dependent upon the original mass and density of the star. Most commonly, at the smaller end the collapsed core becomes a White Dwarf. Here the empty space in the atomic structure has been squeezed out creating an electron-degenerate form of matter.

With the nova of larger stars the pressure of gravity is so immense that protons and electrons begin to fuse into neutrons. This fusion of electrons and protons rapidly produces an even larger source of outward neutrinos. This is the phase known as “core-collapse” as the core is compressed more and more, in a couple of milliseconds, such that the fusion of protons with electrons creates a Neutron Star. With even greater pressure, specifically in talking about hypernovae, the core collapses infinitely such that a new black hole is born.

A neutron star, prior to a black hole, has an incompressible and rigid surface of which material falling inwards is rebounded. This rebounding matter, coupled with the rapid production of neutrinos outwards, produces a shock front that moves from the core outwards towards the surface. The production of this shockwave rebounding from the core collapse, in the opposite direction, is known as “core-bounce”.

It is this shockwave of neutrinos, coming from core-bounce, that rips through the star and tears it apart in a massive explosion whose light energy exceeds the total amount of energy put out by our own sun over its 10 billion year lifetime. Around \( 10^44 \) joules of energy. This is what we call a supernova and is why, for the briefest instance, it becomes the brightest object in the entire universe.

As will become clear a very important precondition to a star going hypernova is that it has a high rate of spin. But as an aside, let us consider what happens if there is very little or no angular rotation within the given star. It would imply that very little angular momentum would be imparted to the newly born black hole. Idealistically, these could be described as a Schwarzschild black hole. As rotation induces current which generates a magnetic field then its absence implies a much weaker magnetic field. Significantly weaker to the point that the supernova is no longer actually shaped by it.

Now consider the idea that there is no core-bounce because the black hole in its birth also swallowed the mass of neutrinos produced in the moments of core-collapse. That is, as the core-collapses in on itself coming from the fusion of iron and heavier elements there is a massive production of neutrinos. If instead a neutron star is born, instead of a black hole, this mass of neutrinos suddenly rebounds almost completely because of the solidity of the neutron star. It is this rebounding shockwave that tears the star apart and makes a supernova the brightest object in the entire universe.

But what if at the moment the black hole is born the mass of neutrinos was inside or sufficiently close to its event horizon. Then there would be no core-bounce and thus no supernova explosion. In fact, the only significant force remaining would be the inward gravitational pull coming from the non-rotating black hole. Thus the remaining matter forming the star will be simply sucked down into the black hole.

In effect, the star would simply disappear and vanish. There would be no supernova explosion as there is no neutrino shockwave. There would be no output jets nor accretion disc remaining. One second the star is there the next second it suddenly vanishes. But in its place the entire mass has been converted into a new born black hole.

Such a star that could hypothetically undergo such a disappearance are Luminous Blue Variable stars. These are an extremely rare type of star of which only 20 are actually known like the aforementioned Eta Carinae.

A more pertinent example that makes such a hypothetical event of a massive star suddenly disappearing is to be found in the PHL 293B. Apparently it has just disappeared this week and we longer see it. So we knew of 20 such stars, but now we are down by one to 19 stars. [5]

Fortunately for me, it acts as a good timely reminder in writing up my explanation for a hypernova in showing the importance of rotation. Particularly after talking about core bounce a question immediately occurred to me; “What if the black hole swallows any information about core bounce?” On the other hand, a massive and very rare type of star has very literally disappeared upon us in the astronomical community. This very week passed. Well it isn’t the oddest coincidence I’ve seen but I learnt a while ago that reality for me is bit off axis.

With this story told, let us look at the specifics of a hypernova. For the purposes of this discussion I make specific reference to the work of Philipp Mosta and colleagues. In particular his 2018 paper “Magneto-rotational core-collapse supernovae in three dimensions” as this shows the importance of both electromagnetism and rotation in the formation of astrophysical jets. This is essentially the best computer model employing general relativistic magnetohydrodynamics that I have so far found that captures beautifully the specific details and patterns I use to describe a hypernova.[6]

I first heard the term hypernova in watching the BBC Horizon’s “The Death Star” episode. Here they describe the discovery of gamma-ray bursts by accident. An unexpected outcome resultant from the paranoia of the cold war in the lates 1960s. My original description of a hypernova was given form thanks in part to this and other physics documentaries, for which I’ve been a complete geek for. Off course, at the time I didn’t even imagine I would be forced to go down the path of having to rethink the entire coarse of physics from one end to the other.

But that rethink comes into play when considering the specifics of a hypernova. The core-collapses, in a microsecond, and collapses so completely that a new black hole is born.

It is very important to note that the supernova is of a sufficient magnitude such that a new black hole is born, as opposed to a neutron star. This is because in the context of the Big Bang Hypernova Hypothesis a gravitational singularity is required. This condition is very important, particularly when we look at the work of Penrose and Hawking. I don’t think our universe would exist, or have evolved into its own closed stable jet-a-verse, if it wasn’t for the theoretical polar opposite of a black hole; namely a White Hole.

In fact, for a long time I could not picture or give name to the collapsed core of a MacLean gone nova. I tried making up names but nothing took hold in my mind. My favourite was “Ipaq” for a time as that was the name my two-year old daughter at the time was calling everything. But a nameless collapsed singularity it remained. Only upon seeing the maximally extended Penrose diagram did I realise why I could not name it. [7] [8]

A white hole is the mirror opposite to a black hole. Black holes, like sinkholes in the ground, consume spacetime. Once across its event horizon not even light can escape the gravitational pull of a black hole. In inverse to this a white hole pours forth spacetime like a fountain. It is impossible for anything to fall through the event horizon of a white hole, even if it is travelling at the speed of light towards the white hole.

However, for all their elusiveness, being black, we have managed to find plenty of evidence for the existence of black holes. But never have we found evidence for their opposite number that being a white hole. As matter begets antimatter and as our universe begets a parallel universe so to must black holes have an opposite number. That being a white hole! Yet our universe is devoid of them.

Why? To answer this we must step outside our universe and into the SuperVerse.

In earlier work I started contemplating the idea of a SuperVerse. Now a very key principle about the SuperVerse is that it shares the same volume of space as our universe. This is not a higher dimensional space but a space that exists along our own 3D spatial dimensions. Our expanding universe as it grows moves outwards to occupy the spatial volume of the SuperVerse. In effect the volume occupied by our universe is but a subset of the SuperVerse; hence the name. Our universe is but a subset of the larger SuperVerse.

Also the Archimedes principle applies in that an equal volume of mass, which to us we call dark energy, will displace an equal volume in our universe. Thus the volume of a MacLean will displace an equal volume within our universe as it flows around its volume. Previously I have made the argument that this caused the Bootes supervoid to form. Another example right on our doorstep is the Local SuperVoid. [9]

If the cosmological principle was that the universe is both isotropic and homogenous then I would expect the direction of travel of any given galaxy to be a fairly random direction. Now the currently accepted explanation of how supervoids formed is that they form like soap bubbles. If this were the case then I would expect the orbital paths taken by galaxies close to a supervoid region to be fairly randomly. In other words given a collection of galaxies, close to a supervoid, I would expect to see them orbiting around the supervoid in every single direction. They should not be all following a similar orbit.

On the other hand, given my explanation of a MacLean in the SuperVerse; then I would expect the vast majority of galaxies to be flowing in from one direction and around the supervoid. Figure 3 of the mapping of the Local Void shows that this is exactly what is happening.[9]

Now let us imagine the collapsed core of a MacLean gone nova that is to us a White Hole. However as a black hole is to us in our universe so is the collapsed core of the MacLean a black hole in the SuperVerse; following the law of self-similarity. In effect this gravitational singularity acts as a black hole in the SuperVerse consuming its contents. Travelling though the wormhole ring-singularity, as we are deriving from a maximally extended Penrose-Diagram, we come out of the mirror opposite the White Hole and into our universe proper.

Thus the Big Bang Hypernova Hypothesis in accordance with General Relativity gives us the very foundational reason for exactly how and why our universe is born and is a separate reality from the SuperVerse. Not only is our universe born but so too is our parallel universe born; which we also see on the maximally extended Penrose Diagram.

The simplest analogy to all of this can be seen in blowing up a balloon inside a closed room. As the balloon is blown up it expands to occupy a subset of the volume inside the room. Like the balloon our universe inflates growing to occupy a subset of the volume of space inside the SuperVerse. The air inside the balloon is separated by the wall of the balloon from the surrounding air in the room. So to our universe is separated by a continuous wall of spacetime from the surrounding SuperVerse. [10]

To blow up an empty balloon I first in inhale a deep breath of air. Rather than air it is spacetime being inhaled in from the SuperVerse by its equivalent to a black hole; the collapsed core of the MacLean. This black hole in the SuperVerse has both rotation and an equivalent electro-magnetic field which in turn give rise to a ring singularity that forms a connected wormhole to the outflowing white hole that is to us the spring source of our universe. So we imagine the ring singularity inside the event horizon as being like a mouth. As we inhale in we draw spacetime in from the SuperVerse and as we exhale into the balloon we exhale into our universe.

To fill the balloon I place it to my mouth and exhale the volume of air into the balloon. Likewise on the other side of the wormhole is the white hole which exhales the volume of spacetime. The balloon grows as it inflates from the volume of exhaled air. The balloon grows in volume the more I exhale and its volume expands to the region around my mouth and in front of my face. So too does our universe grow into the volume of space occupied by the SuperVerse.

Off course no White Hole in our universe has ever been observed. But I do believe that eye witness testimony has been given of seeing what one actually looks like even if no living eye ball has seen it. But to properly unpack this we need to consider what a Type-5 civilisation, on the Kardashev scale, is really like. Particularly in explaining M.I.T. neurologist Eben Alexander’s experience of the afterlife; as well as my curious artwork.

Jupiter Optimus Maximus!

Returning back to our discussion about the specifics of what a hypernova is there is another reason for explicitly stating that our pattern must give birth to a black hole. This second reason comes in considering core-bounce and the magnitude of it.

Neutron stars are in effect the most solid form of matter in the universe. Here the neutrons are packed together forming a solid wall of particles. The material, particularly neutrinos, falling onto the newborn neutron star’s surface, coming from the fusion of iron and heavier elements, are reflected back. This mass reflection of matter gives rise to the rebounding shockwave and it is this shockwave being reflected back and outwards that actually tears the rest of the star apart producing a super-luminous supernova.

Now this is in opposition to a black hole being born which swallows everything once it has crossed the event horizon. The implication being that there is less of a shockwave of neutrinos coming from the fusion of heavier elements which interacts with normal matter very weakly. So the shockwave, I roughly speculate, would not be sufficient to rip the star apart so completely that the feeding pattern of a black hole is unable to properly form. From looking at Mosta’s simulation we see the formation of an accession disc and initial jets without seeing much effect from a rebounding shockwave.

So the core-collapses and a new black hole is born inside the collapsing star. This happens so suddenly that the entire core is gone leaving a vacant whole inside the star. This happens in such a small amount of time that no information regarding the event has reached the surface of the sun. So from the perspective of an outside observer by the time they see the neutrino flash the core has collapsed giving birth to a new black hole which then begins to feed.

Another very important event happens as the core-collapses. Namely, the fusion and creation of elements heavier than iron. It is the gravitational collapse of the star’s mass that drives the fusion of the core into becoming a black hole. But additionally the pressures and temperatures surrounding the core become sufficiently great enough that the fusion process of heavier elements into even heavier elements continues in the milliseconds proceeding core-collapse. In fact, it is from this final fusion process that we get all the elements heavier than iron.

That is, the fusion and creation of elements in the moments proceeding core-collapse accounts for the existence of all elements with an atomic number greater than 26. If such an event like core-collapse did not occur in our universe then all the elements heavier than iron would simply not exist. No lead, no gold, no platinum, nor uranium would have existed if it were not for core-collapse. A star may die but in its death are born the heavier elements of nature.

This is a very important pattern within supernovae and hypernovae events. In the context of the Big Bang Hypernova Hypothesis I try to imagine what is the equivalent to a particle or an atom inside the SuperVerse. As an electron or a proton is a particle with mass to us inside our universe; what would the equivalent particle look like in the SuperVerse?

To answer this question I consider it in the context of the following statement:

A black hole is a fundamental particle of nature.

I have presented this statement before but it has been the hardest thing to try and put into words by what I am trying to convey in this one statement.

In trying to imagine what makes a particle a particle I have for a long time tried imagining them as being somewhat like black holes. A black hole, and by extension, anything with mass, such as the Sun or Earth, all bend spacetime by Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity. A black hole bends spacetime infinitely. On the other hand our Sun bends spacetime only by a finite amount and then the Earth bends spacetime even less.

Now imagine if we took the Earth and cut it in half, like an orange, and separated the pieces. Both halves, having mass, would cause the fabric of spacetime to bend in accordance to General Relativity. Then we take one of the halves and cut it in half producing two quarters which we then separate. Again we can compute the curvature of spacetime by General Relativity coming from a given quarter and again we’ll find that it bends spacetime accordingly.

Now we recursively repeat the process. Take the quarter and half it giving us two eighth. An eighth divided gives a sixteenth and so on. Each divided part having mass which thus bends spacetime accordingly. We continue this process until we are unable to divide any further because we have reduced the mass to a single atom. But that single atom will have mass and bend spacetime itself accordingly.

Off course I am working from the assumption that spacetime is a continuous fabric. The evidence that this assumption is true ironically comes from gamma-ray bursts a primary subject of this essay. Though my case for wither spacetime is discrete or continuous I will leave for another time. [10] [11]

But the important mental imagery that I am trying to convey is that a single quantum system which has mass, be it an atom or a particle, actually bends spacetime in the region surrounding it.

Another way of seeing this change in local curvature of spacetime comes from thinking about the refraction of light. Shine a beam of light at a glass block and as the beam of light moves from the air to the glass the beam is refracted. In other words the beam of light changes its direction of travel because it is passing through the solid glass.

I try to imagine the light being refracted because of the local change in curvature of spacetime coming from the surrounding atoms of Silicon Dioxide that makes up the glass’s atomic structure. So as a photon passes through a vacuum the curvature of spacetime is flat. The photon then travels through air where its path is slightly bent from the curvature of spacetime caused by the air molecules. Passing through glass there is even greater curvature of spacetime as it is a solid, as opposed to a gas.

In order to see particles in the SuperVerse we apply the fractal principle that self-similar patterns repeat themselves irrespective of scale. So I try to imagine a particle, or rather what a single quantum system, would be in the SuperVerse. A black hole, by the no-hair theorem, is defined by three external parameters: mass, charge and angular momentum. We can know no more about a black hole than its mass, charge and angular momentum.

In comparison to a particle all we can know truly know about it is its mass, charge and spin. Remembering that quantum spin is equivalent to angular momentum. So we can see a direct comparison in what we can truly know about both particles and black holes.

Then there is the direct comparison between Coulomb's law (2), which governs electrostatic interaction, and Newton’s law of universal gravitation (3). Both consider the force arising between two elements based on the characteristic of the law. For Coulomb’s law it is electric charge and for Newton it is mass. Both are root squared laws where it is the root squared distance between the two elements that is proportional to the magnitude of the force.

$$ F=k_e\frac{q_1q_2}{r^2} \phantom{xxxxxxxxx} (2) $$

$$ F=G\frac{m_1m_2}{r^2} \phantom{xxxxxxxxx} (3) $$

Remember that fractal cosmology is the cosmological principle and thus self-similar patterns repeat themselves irrespective of scale.

So in try to imagine a particle in the SuperVerse, for all the aforementioned reasons, I see what to us is a black hole as being a particle of the SuperVerse.

Returning to core-bounce and the fusion of heavier and heavier elements we now consider their importance on the next scale up in terms of the Big Bang Hypernova. So instead of it being the fusion of atoms into larger heavier ones we imagine the fusion of black holes into larger and larger black holes. So by the end of this final fusion process of the MacLean this fusion of heavier and heavier black holes ultimately becomes the supermassive black holes which sit at the heart of nearly every galaxy in our universe.

It is the fusion of larger black holes into larger and larger ones that accounts for the formation of supermassive black holes. After all we need to account for questions such as: Why do we see a supermassive black hole at the centre of every galaxy? Why do we see active galaxies, or quasars, at the edge of the observable universe so close to the time of the Big Bang? From inference of this pattern to the larger scale we get our answer.

So from our discussion so far of describing the details of a hypernova we have seen reason that answers two critical questions in physics. Most important, the first question: Why was our universe born into existence? Because as the core of the MacLean collapsed a white hole was born acting as a new spring well of spacetime which eventually became the universe we know today. The second question: How were supermassive black holes formed in the early universe? By the final fusion process of the MacLean as its core-collapsed.

Simple answers to the most elusive of questions.

Coming back to our discussion in regards to the specific patterns of a hypernova we now discuss the formation of an accretion disc and the expulsion of two astrophysical jets travelling in polar opposite directions. It is this specific pattern for me that differentiates a hypernova from a supernova. [12]

The exact how and why astrophysical jets arise from material falling into towards a compact object, such as a neutron star or a black hole, is not very well understood and an active area of research. However there are a number of key components that we can identify that when put together ultimately leads to the formation of an accretion disc and a pair of astrophysical jets in the context of a hypernova. [13]

The first key component is plasma. Plasma, known as the fourth fundamental state of matter, is ionised gas. Here some electrons in a given atom are excited to such a state that they become unbound from the atom thus making the atom ionised. Why is it a key component? Simply because the vast majority of the matter inside the exploding star will be plasma. Namely gas existing in conditions where the temperatures and pressures are sufficient enough to unbind electrons from atoms within the gas making it a plasma.

A charged particle in motion generates a magnetic field. The actual shape and magnitude of the magnetic field, that is generated, is dependent upon the collective direction of all the charged particles in a given system. Here the system being a massive star that is going hypernova.

If the plasma is in thermal equilibrium then it would imply that the direction of a given charged particle in the plasma would appear to be completely random. Although the movement of each charged particle would generate a magnetic field on its own; the overall magnetic field of the plasma would be zero because the motion of particles is random. Each singular magnetic field would collectively cancel each other out because the direction of motion of the ionised gas is random.

This thus leads us to the second key component which is the rotation of the sun’s plasma. So in order for plasma to generate a magnetic field the overall direction of plasma particles must be in one particular direction.

A star is born coming from the gravitational collapse of a cloud of dust and gas in on itself. As the cloud collapses, conservation of angular momentum causes any small net rotation of the cloud to increase, forcing the material into a rotating disk. At the dense centre of this disk a protostar forms, which gains heat from the gravitational energy of the collapse. Thus the rotation of a star about its polar axis is given form.

Another component that we need to consider in rotation is how angular velocity increases as both density increases and the moment of inertia decreases. The classical depiction of this physical phenomenon can be seen in an ice skater spinning faster as they pull their arms in towards their body.

$$ I=\frac{L}{\omega} \phantom{xxxxxxxxx} (4) $$

A skater starts spinning with their arms outstretched. Because their arms are outstretched it implies that they start out spinning with a large moment of inertia. But as they pull their arms in towards their body they lower their moment of inertia. Because angular momentum is conserved then as the skater’s pulls their arms in towards their body, decreasing their moment of inertia, it consequently increases their angular velocity. Thus the skater spins faster and faster as they pull their arms inwards.

So as a skater gains angular velocity, spinning faster and faster, because they pull their arms in decreasing their moment of inertia; so too can it be imagined for a star. A star that swells up into a red supergiant will see its angular velocity decrease as its moment of inertia increases. On the other hand, in considering a hypernova, we are dealing with blue dense star’s weighing more than 40 solar masses whose moment of inertia is small in comparison.

Then in a type-II supernova itself there is the massive increase in angular velocity of the collapsing core. Like the aforementioned skater pulling there arms; the collapsing core rapidly decreases its moment of inertia thus increasing its angular velocity. In effect the rotational speed of the core goes up as it undergoes gravitational collapse. In fact, it is precisely because of this massive increase in angular velocity at the core to relativistic speeds that drives the dynamo of plasma which generates the titanic magnetic field strengths that shape a hypernova explosion.

Thus we come to the third key component which is the magnetic field that is generated by the rotational flow of plasma. The net effect of rotation and angular momentum is that it gives the charged plasma a net direction of travel. Namely, one that follows the rotation of the star about its poles. The movement of charged particles induces an electric current which in turn generates a magnetic field.

Now it should be said that the actual magnetic field produced by a star is both extremely complicated and constantly evolving coming from the many tidal currents of plasma. But for the sake of simplicity of our discussion let us describe the star’s magnetic field as a magnetic dipole. We can make this simplification because of the aforementioned component of rotation and angular velocity.

In my first computational model we see how a concentrically layered jet is formed coming the action of a single magnetic dipole. The model shows how particles being exploded from a spherical volume forms a jet that breaks apart into a series of concentric ringed vortices. All this behaviour arises from a single magnetic dipole force field and nothing more. Also the computational model shows rotation of the particles around the central axis of the jet defined by the poles of the magnetic field.

In order to get a better understanding of the 3-dimensional shape field lines form as a magnetic dipole I employed the Biot-Savart Law in order to construct a map. By considering, the induction of current in a circular loop I am able to derive a 3-dimensional map of a magnetic dipole. We consider current on a circular loop as being roughly representative to the orbital rotation of plasma which induces the generation of electric current. From this map we can identify the two key features of the magnetic dipole.

The primary key feature is between those regions where the field lines are open and closed. Best seen in a 2-dimensional picture of a loop induced magnetic dipole we see that field lines close to the loop are closed. That is, the field line circles around the loop and back in itself forming an ellipsoid. These closed field lines occupy the area surrounding the equatorial region. Open field lines, on the other hand, do not loop back in themselves. These open field lines occupy the area surrounding the polar regions they pass through the central area formed by the loop.

The second feature, which can be seen in the 3-dimensional model is how the field lines follow a rotational path around the loop itself. For instance, if a particle were to follow one of the closed field lines it would follow a curved corkscrew orbit around the induction loop. The curvature of the corkscrew would be circular around the loop. On the other hand following an open field line a particle gives us a helical path whose orbit is around the axis of the dipole.

These features of a magnetic dipole then give rise to the behaviour seen in my first computational model. Particles close to the equator are trapped inside the closed magnetic field lines following an oscillating orbit around and around the induction loop. This in effect models the material that comes to form an accession disc within a hypernova.

A magnetic field will induce a force onto a charged particle moving through it such that the force is perpendicular to its direction of travel. In the simplest case where the magnetic field is uniform we find that a charged particle follows a helical path in the direction determined by the magnetic field. This behaviour is what is seen in the movement of particles in the regions close to the polar poles where the magnetic field is fairly uniform. [14]

Material initially, or that subsequently enters, the polar regions of the dipole follows the open magnetic field lines up and away from the loop. Here the particles follows a helical path around the axis defined by the magnetic dipole. This behaviour is what is seen in my first computational model and cumulatively forms an initial jet travelling along the axis of the dipole. This in effect models the formation of the jet within a hypernova.

With this all said let us paint the picture of jet formation. Prior to a massive star going hypernova we observe that it has a very high spin. That is the plasma and gas, which composes the mass of the star, follows a fast rotational orbit about the poles upon which the star rotates. Because of the fast rotation of charged ionised plasma the star generates a very strong magnetic field.

As the star goes nova, coming from the fusion of iron, the rapidly spinning core collapses. As the core collapses it becomes smaller and denser and thus its moment of inertia thus drops drastically causing the collapsing core to spin faster and faster to relativistic speeds. This titanic increase in the rotation of plasma to relativistic speeds causes the strength of the magnetic field to multiply by about a billion fold.

It is due to both the magnetic field strength and its dipole shape that acts to contain the charged plasma which gives a hypernova its charged shape. At the equator an accretion disc forms by containing the plasma within the closed magnetic field lines. Two jets form coming from the helical orbital escape paths of charged particles inside the fairly parallel open magnetic field lines running through the dying star’s axis of rotation. Thus two astrophysical jets are ejected, each travelling away from each other, in polar opposite directions.

Now as mentioned I had to greatly simplify my explanation in order to identify and discuss the key factors that causes a hypernova to behave like a shaped charge. In reality the actual numerical modelling that is done in order to produce a detailed simulation of a hypernova is both very complicated and computationally expensive. It took 130,000 computer cores operating in parallel over a span of two weeks on Blue Waters, one of the most powerful supercomputers in the world, to generate one of these simulations. But let us now look at these detailed simulations and their results now that we have described the basic process.

When it comes to hypernova research both Caltech and Berkeley University have and are at the forefront of research. The term hypernova itself was coined by Stanford E. Woosley in 1981 who is now director of Supernova Research at University of California. He coined the term in his publication Theoretical Models for Supernovae. But it is the latest simulations as produced by Philipp Mosta and colleagues that we will look at here. [2], [6]

Specifically these are General-Relativistic Magnetohydrodynamic numerical models. It’s all in the name. So Hydrodynamics relates to modelling the flow of plasma using the Navier-Stokes equations. For my own experience I’ve intermit knowledge with the numerical modelling of the Navier-Stokes equations from previous work looking at sedimentary turbidite flows.

Magnetohydrodynamics couples both the Navier-Stoke equations with Maxwell’s equations of electromagnetism. Thus it models both the flow of plasma coupled with the generation and effect produced by the shaping magnetic field. Lastly, there is the General Relativistic part of the name which in turn couples magnetohydrodynamic equations with Einstein’s equation of General Relativity. As the collapsed-core is born into a black hole then General Relativity has a role to play in shaping the explosion.

One of the effects arising from General Relativity in the formation of relativistic astrophysical jets can be seen in the Penrose process. This process is first best understood in terms of how we use the gravitational attraction of planets to accelerate a space probe without expending rocket fuel. In order to accelerate a space probe via a gravity assist sling-shot technique the probe travels towards a given planet. Because of the gravitational pull on the probe by the planet it begins to accelerate towards the planet. But rather than hitting the planet the probe swings round the circumference of the planet and is slung off travelling in the desired direction. The planet imparts a piece of its orbital kinetic energy to the probe as it accelerates.

In a similar manner a photon can be slung around the ergosphere of a rotating black hole. In a similar manner, but at greater extreme, kinetic energy from the black hole is imparted to the photon. So a photon that originally had the frequency of an X-ray is energised by the gravity assist slingshots such that it becomes a gamma-ray. Thus the Penrose process helps produce the gamma-rays of a Gamma-Ray Burst.

The first simulation shows the 3-dimensional toroidal magnetic field that forms inside a supernova in the milliseconds proceeding core collapse. It demonstrates that as a rotating star collapses, the star and its attached magnetic field spin faster and faster, forming a dynamo that revs the magnetic field to a million billion times the magnetic field of Earth. Red and blue represent weaker positive and negative magnetic fields, respectively. [6], [15]

The importance of this specific simulation is that it shows the casual link between rotational core-collapse and the generation of a such a strong tubular magnetic field that runs the axis of the star’s rotation. It is this strong magnetic field that shapes the supernova such that an accretion disc forms about the equator along with two polar opposite jets forming and being ejected.

The second simulation shows the process of jet and accretion disc formation following the same process but in cross-section. The dynamics are dominated by the ultra-strong magnetic field that is built up during and shortly after the core-collapse. The jet-like explosion is foiled by a spiralling magnetohydrodynamics kink instability that disrupts the numerical calculation of the jet. The different colours correspond to gas of different temperature. Blue corresponds to the coldest gas, green is hotter gas and yellow and red are the hottest gas. [6]

Numerical models, off course, are a very good approximation in trying to visualise the dynamics such that we can understand the how and why. However what evidence exists to tell us that a hypernova of a massive star is an actual real physical phenomena. In order to understand that answer we have to rewind the clock back to the height and paranoia of the cold war in the 1960s.

At the height of the cold war both the USA and Russia were in secret building and developing ever more destructive nuclear weapons. If there was at least one thing that both sides could agree upon it was that testing nuclear weapons was not exactly the best thing for humanity or the environment. This coming after the decade of the 1950s when both sides were testing ever greater numbers of atomic weapons with larger and larger yields. The largest test having been the Tsar Bomb with a yield of 58 megatons. Thus in the 1960s both sides sat down and agreed on a Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty which banned the testing of nuclear weapons in the air, underwater and in outer space.

Off course, each side did not trust the other to hold to the treaty. Such was the paranoia of the US that some people in the government believed that Russia were testing nuclear weapons on the dark side of the moon; maybe because the US had similar plans. It sounds completely nuts now but such was the paranoia between both sides during the cold war.

It is one of those stories from history that brings Einstein’s famous quote to mind: “Two things are infinite: the universe and human stupidity; and I’m not sure about the universe.”

I would naturally argue that the universe is not infinite by the Big Bang Hypernova Hypothesis as a MacLean has a finite size; nor by extension is the SuperVerse infinite or the Super-SuperVerse which it encompasses. The recursive nature of fractal geometry thus allows us to paint a picture towards infinity. But there is something to be said about having an idea and then realising no other human apart from yourself has ever thought about.

Ideas to me now are a dime the dozen. Always has my subconscious sought for a complete vision and understanding of everything that held real truth and meaning. Born into a world of infinite possibilities and almost endless knowledge I, like many others, play their part. This is what makes me a total geek for all things. Relentless, always thinking, always pondering, never resting; so it is with my subconscious. And then with each new idea I would dig, do my research, and always someone had thought about it before; usually discovering entire libraries in the pursuit.

But in thinking about the Big Bang as being like a hypernova explosion. Nothing! And then in thinking about evolution taking to its most infinite conclusion. Nothing! But then again science’s current vision of time began at the moment of the Big Bang. So the idea of evolved life existing before the Big Bang is nonsensical given that time began at the moment of the classical Big Bang theory. Then again I do have to square the circle with my subconscious and mind’s eye given the quaint artwork from which I draw inspiration in developing my ideas.

Does your scientific theory have the real physical Holy Grail behind it? Mine does. Just that my psychology has never managed to adjust to this “new normal” in my life.

But going back to the 1960s and US paranoia about the Soviets detonating nuclear bombs on the far side of the moon led to the development of the Vela satellites. The purpose of these satellites was to detect gamma-ray bursts produced by detonation of a nuclear weapon. So even if the nuke was detonated on the far side of the moon these satellites would detect it. And the satellites did detect gamma-ray bursts but it was obviously not caused by the detonation of nuclear weapons on the far side of the moon.

So a new scientific mystery was born. Very-high energy gamma ray bursts were being detected coming from space and we could not account for it. At first, most scientists agreed that these had to be coming from inside our own galaxy. The collision of matter, such as asteroids, with neutron stars is capable of producing the required energy levels and this came to be regarded as the most plausible idea. The idea that these gamma ray bursts came from the edges of our universe was unthinkable. It was unthinkable because such an explosion would be in violation of Einstein’s most famous equation:

$$ E=mc^2 \phantom{xxxxxxxxx} (5) $$

Even if all the matter in a massive star, outside of our own galaxy, were converted to energy it would not produce enough gamma-rays such as those being detected. But the detail in this assumption was that the energy from the explosion was uniform. That is the explosion shot out in every direction as opposed to being focused into a pair of astrophysical jets.

Now if the assumption that gamma-ray bursts do occur inside our own galaxy were true then we should see the source location of these bursts aligning with the galactic plane. With the launch of the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory in 1991 was this assumption actually tested. To nearly everyones shock the gamma-ray bursts were seen coming from all over the night’s sky meaning that they were in fact coming from outside of our galaxy. [16]

It was Martin Rees, our current astronomer royal, who actually realised the solution. Rees realised that the flaw in our assumption was that the explosions, which produce these gamma-ray bursts, were not in fact uniform. Being an expert in compact objects, such as neutron stars and black holes, Rees realised that such high-energy photons could be focused into beams that we now a days call relativistic or astrophysical jets.

Stanford Woosley built upon this idea in figuring out how a supernova could be shaped such that its explosive output was focussed into a pair of jets. Thus the idea of a hypernova was born as a consequence of trying to explain how the impossible is actually possible. Since then astronomers have refined there techniques and observations in trying to catch these most elusive explosions happening at the very edges of our universe. One good example is GRB-171205A. [17]

Then there are planetary nebula whose form was given shape and structure by the bipolar shaped charge explosion that constitutes a hypernova event. Examples of such nebula are to be found in the Homunculus Nebula in the Eta Carinae system. Such a nebula are known as bipolar nebula. Probably the best example, I’ve seen to date, is the M2-9 Twin Jet Nebula. It’s all in the name.

Only one thought goes through my mind looking at M2-9 nebula; the golden rule: Self-similar patterns repeat themselves irrespective of scale. Now imagine what our universe looks like from the SuperVerse while reciting William Blake’s poem.

To see a World in a Grain of Sand, And a Heaven in a Wild Flower, Hold Infinity in the palm of your hand, And Eternity in an hour.

So now that we have identified and discussed each of the component parts in turn let us conclude by bringing them all together in order to describe a hypernova.

A hypernova begins when a massive star with high rotation whose mass exceeds 40 solar masses, typically a blue supergiant, comes to the end of its life. In the star’s relatively short life it has fused all it’s hydrogen to helium; then helium into beryllium and so on until iron becomes the primary fuel source. As the rapid fusion of silicon into iron stops the inward gravitational collapse begins and the hypernova event begins.

As the core begins collapsing down on itself the required temperatures and pressures for the fusion of iron are met. Unlike the lighter elements the fusion of iron and all heavier elements absorbs energy; as opposed to realising energy. Driven by the neutron capture fusion process the alchemical process by which all atoms heavier than iron are born happens in the milliseconds proceeding core-collapse.

A massive flood of neutrinos are produced as a byproduct of neutron capture. Typically, it is this massive mass of neutrinos exploding outwards from core-bounce that would tear the star apart creating a supernova explosion. However it is the generation of the enormous solenoid magnetic field that shapes a hypernova explosion.

The core continues to collapse down in on itself so violently and completely that a black hole is born. The empty space inside the atom is forced out, as atoms and particles are crushed together, creating an electron degenerate form of matter. This degenerate form of matter is crushed even further such that protons fuse with electrons leaving only neutrons. Then it is crushed so much that the weight of the mass itself falls infinitely in on itself, by general relativity, and a black hole is born.

As the core collapses its rate of angular velocity is dramatically accelerated as its moment of inertia decreases, following the conservation of angular momentum. The motion of the surrounding charged plasma in turn accelerates which induces a solenoid shaped magnetic field. From the star’s initial magnetic field the strength of this field grows exponentially until it is a million billion times stronger than Earth’s own magnetic field. It is this solenoid shaped magnetic field that shapes the bipolar formation of jets.

The closed magnetic field lines act to contain the matter of the exploding star such that it is quickly swept into forming an accretion disc around the black hole. The open magnetic field lines of a solenoid run parallel to each other. A charged particle travelling through a uniform magnetic field, whose field lines run parallel to each other, takes a helical path whose overall direction of motion is along the polar axis. [14]

In previous work, I have shown, exactly how a particle’s helical motion following and orbiting a given polar axis can give rise to a CPT-symmetric form; particularly when considering the particles mirror opposite travelling in the opposite direction. Thus allowing us to see how the Big Bang Hypernova Hypothesis can give rise to a CPT-symmetric universe; a fundamental law of quantum mechanics. The exact reason for the helical escape is given form by the generation of an equivalent solenoid shaped field in the hypernova of a MacLean.

Although a topic of a future essay, we have briefly touched upon how General Relativity falls into place in the context of the Big Bang Hypernova Hypothesis. This is particularly the case in the context of the maximally extended Penrose Diagram. The core of the MacLean collapses giving birth to a fast rotating black hole, in the SuperVerse, upon whose flip side, through the ringed wormhole singularity, a White Hole is also born. This then feeds the birth not just of our universe but also of our twin verse of anti-matter. [7]

Thus we see how the Big Bang Hypernova Hypothesis has both roots in not just Quantum Mechanics but also General Relativity. Like any scientific revelation, it is the simplicity of nature’s actual solution that is our guide. That guide being the pattern of a hypernova explosion as self-similar patterns repeat themselves irrespective of scale.

So our core has collapsed and a black hole is born. This happens so quickly that the core is gone while on the star’s surface everything looks normal. The first clue that something drastic has happened is in observing the flash of neutrinos being produced by the fusion of heavier elements. But rather than the star being ripped apart by the neutrino shockwave it is the strength of the solenoid magnetic field that shapes the explosion.

Following a rotational helical orbit about the polar axis plasma is accelerated along the open magnetic field lines giving birth to a pair of twin jets; one for each of the two poles. One jet erupts and is ejected from the dying star’s north pole and the other jet from the south pole. Thus each jet begins its journey through space. Each travelling away from one another in polar opposite directions.

Coupled to the electromagnetic force in shaping the jets’ structure so too is the force of gravity, via General Relativity, involved. A primary example of this can be seen in the Penrose process whereby gravitational energy is transferred from the newly born black hole onto orbiting particles and photons. This is in a similar manner to how a space probe is accelerated via a gravity assist sling shot. Thus x-ray photons are empowered into becoming gamma-rays and particles with mass are accelerated to relativistic speeds.

These high energy particles and gamma-rays form the mass of the newly born pair of relativistic jets which we see as long duration gamma-ray bursts here in Earth.

The hypernova process continues as matter falls into the black hole from the now formed accretion disc. Either the matter falls into the black hole or is ejected away from the black hole, following the open magnetic field, forming part of the overall polar jet. This process continues until all the matter from the accretion disc is gone.

What remains once the accretion disc is gone are two astrophysical jets travelling away from each other in polar opposite directions and in the middle where the star once existed is newborn black hole.

With this all said it completes our essay in asking the question “What is hypernova?”.

Until next time.

References:

• [1] End of a Star's Life - Prof James Schombert, University of Oregon
• [2] Theoretical Models for Supernovae - S. E. Woosley, Thomas A. Weaver
• [3] "Rosetta Stone" found to decode the mystery of gamma ray bursts. NASA
• [4] Astronomy Notes - Nick Strobel
• [5] The possible disappearance of a massive star in the low-metallicity galaxy PHL 293B - Andrew P Allan, Jose H Groh, Andrea Mehner, Nathan Smith, Ioana Boian, Eoin J Farrell, Jennifer E Andrews Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Volume 496, Issue 2, August 2020
• [6] Magneto-rotational core-collapse supernovae in three dimensions - Philipp Mosta, Sherwood Richers
• [7] Penrose diagrams - University of Colorado
• [8] Conformal treatment of infinity. Roger Penrose
• [9] Cosmography of the Local Void. R. Brent Tully, Daniel Pomarede, Romain Graziani
• [10] A Gamma Ray Race Through the Fabric of Space-Time Proves Einstein Right - Discover Magazine
• [11] Gamma-ray bursts hints of space time foam - Sky & Telescope
• [12] Scientists have solved a mystery behind hypernovas and gamma-rays - Neel V. Patel
• [13] Miniconference on astrophysical jets - P. M. Bellan, Applied Physics, California Institute of Technology
• [14] Motion of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field - University of Saskatchewan
• [15] Missing link between turbulence in collapsing star, hypernovae and gamma-ray bursts - UC Berkley News
• [16] Gamma-Ray Bursts, a Brief History. NASA
• [17] Observations of a rare hypernova complete the picture of the death of the massive stars. EurekAlert